Hanggang sa Muli! PAALAM

Salamat

(ni Rycel-J A. Retuerne)

Lahat tayo ay nagsimula

Sa isang mahirap na asignatura

Nakakahilo sa una

Ngunit ika’y mamangha.

Iba’t ibang kaalaman

Panibagong matututunan

Mahirap man maintindihan

Aming parin susubukan.

Hindi man sapat ang kakayahan

Pilit paring lalampasan

Dugo’t pawis ang ibinuhos sa laban

Upang madagdagan ang kaisipan.

Ngunit hindi dapat magalinlangan

Dahil may gurong tutulong sa laban

Matalino, magaling, masipag sapagkat masungit kung minsan

At hinding hindi ka pababayaan.

Ngunit mabilis ang paglipas ng pnahon

Ay nakaraan ay dapat ng ibaon

Dahil haharap na sa panibagong hamon

Maraming salamat po sa binigay niyong pagkakataon.

Maraming salamat sa mga aral at payo

Salamat sa mga alaalang nabuo

Samalat sa busilak na puso

Palaging mananatili ito sa aking isip at puso.

 

     Nakilala kita sa isang maling pananaw na akala ko sayo ay isang masungit at palaturong guro kung baga hindi marunong tumawa at hindi mabiro. Sa ating pagtatapos, gusto ko pong aminin na ikinasusuklam ko po kayo noong una, sa kadahilanang kailangan naming gumising ng maaga para ihabol ang takdang aralin sa umaga, mga proyekto na kay hirap gwain kung minsan at mga pagsusulit na nakakahilo at hindi maintindihan. Sa kabila ng lahat, napakahirap ang aming pinagdaanan ngunit alam naming ito ang bubuo sa aming pangarap tungo sa kinabukasan.

      Sa dalawang taon na nakasama ko po kayo at sa isang taong pag-aaral ng Asignaturang Pisika (Liknayan) ay isang napakahalagang yaman para sa aming mga estudyante. Nais kong ipahayag ang mga natutunan ko sa General Physics 1 kung saan pinag-aralan naming ang air resistance ng isang bagay dahil dito nakadepende ang bilis ng isang bagay bago mahulog. Pagkatapos, gumagawa kami ng write up upang masanay at matuto ng mabuti sa aming gawain. Sapagkat, kailangan din naming iulat kong ano ang aming ginawa upang maibahagi sa aming kapwa kaklase. Sa pagtatapos ng unang semestre na akala  ko’y matatapos na ang aming kalbaryo sa asignaturang Liknayan.

      Subalit dumating na naman ang panibagong hamon na kung saan sa pangalawang semestre ay ay nagkaroon na naman kami ng General Physics 2, ngunit hindi ako nagsisi dahil alam kong marami akong matutunan at matutuklasan pa sa araling ito. Dito natutunan ko na may iba’t ibang uri ng lenses, may dalawang convex na salamin na kung saan tinatawag itong Converging Lens. Subalit ang isang uri ay tinatawag na Diverging Lens na kung saan ang dalawang concave na salamin ay pinagsama.

      Ilan lamang yan sa aming natutunan, hindi ko inaasahan na sa asignaturang ito ay dadaan tayo sa matinding paghihirap at may mga panahon na halos hindi na natin maintindihan, ngunit hindi tayo sumukong subukan kong ano angating makakaya at dahil sa awa ng Diyos ito’y ating nay lampasan.

        Ngunit sa ating paglalakbay ay nagkaroong ng pagtatapos, ito’y itinadhana sa atin upang magpaalam sa nakaraan at magsisilbing alaala ang mga nabuong samahan, mga nagawang karanasan, mga kulitan at katatawanan, at higit sa lahat mga aral na makabuluhan. Hindi lang tungkol sa Liknayan an gaming natutunan kundi pati narin ang pagdidisiplina sa loob ng klase, kahit mahirap ipinaramdam mo na hindi kami nag-iisa at nagawa mong magsakripisyo sa mga katulad kong estudyanteng mahirap makaintindi at ang pinakamalaking bagay na ginawa mo para sa amin ay binuksan mo ang puso mo at itinuring kaming tunay na anak at isang tunay na pamilya.

      Sana’y manatili parin ang ating samahan at patuloy niyo kaming bibigyan ng mabubuting aral upang magamit ito sa aming buhay. Maraming Salamat Po! Sa mga alaala at aral na inyong ibinigay at itinuro sa amin, mga pag-aalaga, paggagabay at pagsasakripisyo. At higit sa lahat maraming salamat po sa walang sawang pagmamahal sa amin. MARAMING SALAMAT PO Sir LEXTER C. SUPNET! HANGGANG SA MULI. PAALAM.

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Dual Nature of Light and Diffraction

       As our teacher said “Like the Water in Pond, Light is a Wave,” though “LIGHT- Both a particle and a wave.”

     Water waves have the ability to travel around corners, around obstacles and through openings. Sound waves do the same. But what about light? An age-old debate that has persisted among scientists is related to the question, “Is light a wave or a stream of particles?”

     Let us see who are the scientists, their contributions and on what are their perspective on what LIGHT REALLY IS.

First we have Newton,

• According to Newton, light is a particle for it is made up of particles called corpuscle. And light can reflect and refract.

Second,

• Christiaan Huygens found that light is like a wave. This is due to wave can only interfere and particle cannot.

Third,

• Thomas Young proved Huygens’ idea by showing the Double-slit experiment.

    On the study of Albert Einstein (1887), light is a particle after he discovered the Photoelectric Effect wherein this results from the ejection of electrons by light that has enough energy to kick out electrons on the nucleus.

    Moreover, Davidson/Germer proved the study of De Broglie’s postulate. The De Broglie’s postulate was shown below:

Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) “Light is a Wave” (1690)

 Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Principia (1687) & “Light is a Particle”

 

Thomas Young (1773-1829) “Double Slit Experiment” (1807)

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) “Photoelectric Effect” (1887) & Noble Prize (1921)

De Broglie (1927) “De Broglie’s Postulate” proved by Davidson/Germer

     In addition, we conducted an activity on THOMAS YOUNG’S DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT though a CD, blade, packing tape and most especially a laser. And with this, the concept of diffraction was discussed and the interference pattern as well.

    Below is the equation governing the diffraction of light. Inappropriately we were not able to measure the distance from each of the laser light so, we did not experienced applying this equation.

    Perhaps, we could obtain an accurate results but we were not able to measure the distance of the three patterns of light.

    As we go back Reflection involves a change in direction of waves when they bounce off a barrier. Refraction of waves involves a change in the direction of waves as they pass from one medium to another. And Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around an obstacle in their path.

  According to what we’ve discussed, Light exhibits certain behaviors that are characteristic of any wave and would be difficult to explain with a purely particle-view. Light reflects in the same manner that any wave would reflect. Light refracts in the same manner that any wave would refract. Light diffracts in the same manner that any wave would diffract. Light undergoes interference in the same manner that any wave would interfere. And light exhibits the Doppler Effect just as any wave would exhibit the Doppler Effect.

            To conclude, in this activity it enable me to learn that DIFFRACTION is involves a change in direction of waves as they pass through an opening or around an obstacle in their path. The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the wavelength of light to the size of the opening. Though, if the opening is much larger than the light’s wavelength, the bending will be almost hidden. But, if the two are closer in size or equal, the amount of bending is considerable, and easily seen with the naked eye. Therefore, I was able to understand this concept well when our teacher presented to us an interactive simulation of how this works. And when a certain situation will come, I know already the reason behind on it.

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Light Refraction

 

   When we were young our ancestors always says that if you reach the end of a rainbow you’ll found a lot of treasures, so we wonder if rainbow has really an end. But as we grow old, we learned that rainbow is formed when light enters each water droplet, and the different colors bend (refract) at slightly different angles. They reflect off the inside of the drop before refracting again as they leave. The shorter wavelengths refract more. Similarly, a rainbow is caused because each color refracts at slightly different angles as it enters, reflects off the inside and then leaves each tiny drop of rain.

     But the principle behind this concept is about Refraction where it is the bending of the path of a light wave as it passes across the boundary separating two media. Refraction is caused by the change in speed experienced by a wave when it changes medium. Light refracts whenever it travels at an angle into a substance with different refractive index. This change of direction is caused by a change in speed. For example, when light travels from air into water, it slows down, causing it to continue to travel at different angle or direction. In addition, the index of reflection is defined as the speed of light in vacuum divided by the speed of light in the medium.

Light In Water

    When lights travels from air into water, it slows down, causing it to change direction slightly. This change of direction is called refraction. When light enters a more dense substance (higher refractive index), it bends’ more towards the normal line.

The amount of bending depends on two things:

• First is the Change in speed–  if a substance causes the light speed up or slow down more, it will refract (bend) more.
• Second is the Angle of incident ray – if the light is entering the substance at the greater angle, the amount of refraction will also be more noticeable. Furthermore, if the light is entering the new substance from straight on (at 90 degrees to the surface), the light will still slow down, but it won’t change direction at all.

     According to our discussion, our adviser gave us some lesson in which the refraction index of some transparent substances. These are the following:

Substance	Refractive index	Speed of light in substance ( x 1,000,000 m/s)	Angle of refraction if incident ray enters substance at 20 degrees
Air	1.00	300	20
Water	1.33	226	14.9
Glass	1.5	200	13.2
Diamond	2.4	125	8.2

     Thus, a higher refractive index shows that light will slow down and change direction more as it enters the substance.

    On the other hand, our adviser also taught us the two things about lenses in which are the biconvex lens (Converging) and biconcave lens (Diverging).

     Though we must first define lens, lens is simply a curved block of glass or plastic.

    Biconvex Lens is also called as the converging lens in which each light ray entering a converging (convex) lens refracts inwards as it enters the lens and inwards again as it leaves. These refraction’s because parallel light rays to spread out, travelling directly away from an imaginary focal point.

     Moreover, Biconcave Lens is also known as diverging lens in which each light ray entering a diverging (concave) lens refracts outwards as it enter the lens and outwards again as it leaves. These refraction cause parallel light rays to spread out, travelling directly away from an imaginary focal point.

    To complete, we must also know what the Ray diagram is. Ray Diagram can be used to determine the image location, orientation, size and type of the image formed of objects when place at a given location in front of the concave mirror. Ray diagrams provide useful information about object- image relationships, yet fall to provide the information in a quantitative form. While a ray diagram may help one determine the approximate location and size of the image, it will not provide numerical information about image distance and object size.

    To obtain this type of numerical information, it is necessary to use the mirror equation and the magnification equation. The mirror equations express the quantitative relationship between the object distance (do), the image distance (di) and the focal length (f). The equation is stated as follows:

   The magnification equation relate the ratio of the image distance and object distance to the ratio of the image height ( hi) and object height (ho). The magnification equation is stated as follows:

    The sign conventions for the given quantities in the lens equation and magnification equations are as follows:

• f is + if the lens is a double convex lens (converging lens)
• f is – if the lens is a double concave lens (diverging lens)
• di is + if the image is a real image and located on the opposite side of the lens.
• di is – if the image is a virtual image and located on the object’s side of the lens.
• hi is + if the image is an upright image (and therefore, also virtual)
• hi is – if the image an inverted image (and therefore, also real)

     Therefore, without refraction we cannot see things clearly and we didn’t know the principle behind the rainbow and other things that has not been discovered, because of this lesson and activity, I was able to understand the concept of Refraction and I was able to obtain new knowledge with a real situation and information which serves for me that if a certain scenario will come I’ve already know the reason behind it.

 

Reflection of Light

  Man has wondered about light since the beginning of time. How fast does it travel: is its speed infinite or finite? If finite, how fast is it? What is light: is it made of particles? Is it made of waves? Perhaps it is something entirely different? How do we see things around us: do eyes emit light that reflects from surroundings and comes back to the eyes, or do eyes only detect light from the surroundings? These and many other questions preoccupied the minds of countless natural philosophers, physicists, and experimenters. After millennia of debates and experiments, we now know that the speed of light, c, is finite and at 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum, it is a fundamental constant of nature.

  It is like the qualitative study of the origin of light and it’s quantitative one was studied by James Clerk Maxwell. In his investigation, he used mathematical equations to know how light occurred. There were 4 mathematical equations that were used and it is seen below:

            First equation is from the Gauss’s law for electricity, which expresses the fact that electric field lines begin and end only at charges.

        Second equation is from the magnetic equivalent of Gauss’s law for magnetism, which expresses the fact that magnetic field lines never begin or end (i.e., there are no free magnetic charges).

          Third equation is from the Faraday’s Law of Induction which expresses the fact that for every change of magnetic flux, there is induced electric field.

           Fourth equation is from Ampere’s Law which expresses the fact that for every change in magnetic field, there is induced current.

    

   Light is define as a transverse electromagnetic wave that can be seen by humans. The wave nature of light was studied and found out that the speed of light is finite. It’s value in a vacuum is define at exactly 299,792,458 meter per second. Hence, it is considered as a fundamental constant of nature.  Light travels fast and it reflects an imagery. It occurred because the visible white light is directed onto the surface of a mirror and it causes the reflection.

      The ray of the light which strikes the mirror is consider as the incident ray and the point at which the incident ray strikes the mirror is called the point of incidence. A line perpendicular to the mirror through the point of incidence is called normal. The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal is called the angle of incidence. When the incident ray strikes the mirror, it bounces of the mirror which will create a reflected ray. The angle which the reflected ray makes with the normal is called the angle of reflection. This concept explains the law of reflection in which the angle of incident ray is always equal to the angle of reflection. A connotation that measuring the angles must start from the normal not in the mirror. And the incidence ray, the normal in the point of incidence, and reflected ray all lies in the same plane.

    On our activity in Physics the law of reflection has been observed through the following materials push pins, protractor, bond papers, ruler, pencil and a mirror. Our group had observe that when the push pin is placed in a certain angle in front of a mirror, it reflects the object with the same angle as to the original placement of the object of the mirror. Though, in our activity the equality of the rays reflected was not accurately obtained due to some factors. One is the eye level where the observer may have looked on a different angle. And the size of the mirror’s frame can affect the accuracy of the reflected ray as the observer place the push pin was a little bit hard and tricky. After this, we were all delighted to achieved our objective and the presence of small errors was just a minimal struggle in our activity.

    Moreover, to the law of reflection, the reflected image can be describe using the LOST; L– location of the image; O – orientation of the image either upright or inverted; S– size of the image either increased, reduced or the same; T – type of image either real or virtual. In addition, multiple images can be seen using two mirrors place in the incidence and reflected ray, and the object is at the normal. Placing the mirrors in different angles formulate multiple images. The concept then states that as the angle is decreasing, more images formed. While as the angle is increasing, less images formed. Simply, it can be calculated using the formula.

      Then, another concept which correlate to the reflection of light is the topic of curved mirrors specifically the spherical mirrors. A spherical mirrors formed by a part of a hollow glass sphere with a reflecting surface. There were two types of spherical mirrors that we had discussed the concave and convex mirrors. Concave mirrors refers to the reflecting surface on the inner side and convex mirrors refers to the reflecting surface on the outer side. These types of mirrors are following some terminologies to be familiarize first before conducting an activity. The succeeding terminologies used are presented below:

• Center of curvature ( C ) is the point in the center of the sphere from which the mirror was sliced.
• Focal point ( F ) is a point midway between the vertex and the center of curvature.
• Radius of Curvature ( R ) is the distance from the vertex to the center of curvature. It is the radius of the sphere from which the mirror was cut.
• Focal length ( f ) is the distance from the mirror to the focal point. Also, it is the one-half radius of the curvature.

      Similarly, there were also two rules to be followed in the reflection of the concave mirrors. They are:

• Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis on the way to the mirror will pass through the focal point upon reflection.
• Any incident ray passing through the focal point on the way to the mirror will travel parallel to the principal axis upon reflection.

For the convex mirrors these two rules were revised. They are:

• Any incident ray traveling parallel to the principal axis on the way to a convex mirror will reflect in such a manner that its extension will pass through the focal point.
• Any incident ray traveling towards a convex mirror such that its extension passes through the focal point will reflect and travel parallel to the principal axis.

CONCAVE MIRRORS

    CONVEX MIRRORS

    In determining the LOST of the image being reflected, a person should know the definition of it as it have been mentioned above. Additional knowledge, sometimes determining the type of the image is a little bit confusing. A real image is formed whenever reflected light passed through the image location. And a virtual image is formed if the object is located less than one focal length from the concave mirror. Remember that convex mirrors always produce virtual images while concave mirrors are capable in producing both real and virtual images.

       I observed that it was quiet hard and tiring to plot the rays especially if you don’t place your ruler properly. And that’s why, in the computation part for percent of errors we then got high percentage. In computing the percent error, the following data must be measured; f (focal length); Ho (height of the object; Do (distance of the object); Hi (height of the image; and Di (distance of the image). And the formula’s to be used are:

For distance of the image:

1/f = 1/do + 1/di (Concave Mirrors)

-1/f = 1/do + 1/di (Convex Mirrors)

For the Height of the image:

hi/ho = – di/do or hi = ho(-di)/do

For the Percent Error:

True Value – Experimental Value/ True Value x 100%

        Although, because of these activities, I’ve learned a lot, specially understanding and analyzing the concept of reflection, though when circumstances come to us, I knew something and I knew already the reasons behind.

Paradise Swing

I. Title: PARADISE SWING

       (Electromagnetic Swing)

II. Objectives:

    Experience the impact of the electromagnetic Lorentz force. By building the swing on their own they will have a hands-on activity. In addition, to observe the magnetic force in a current-carrying wire as well as its direction and the direction of current and magnetic field.

III. Materials:

• Magnet
• Coil
• 5 V Battery
• Plywood
• Barbecue Stick
• Wood

For the Decorations:

• Popsicle sticks
• Sand
• Human cut-out

IV. Procedure:

1. Gather all the materials needed.
2. First, make the base with the desired size you want.
3. Second, put the magnet on the base. After placing the magnets on the appropriate positions you have to prepare the swing.
4. Therefore cut the copper wire to the wanted length, then scrape it end to end to remove the coating, and solder it or twist to the stick. Thread the wire through the sticks made and make sure the swing is as close as possible to the magnet, but without touching it.
5. Test the magnet if it is working with the copper wire which is connected to the 1.5 V battery.
6. Then glue the 2 sticks for the swing to be hanged. Hang the swing made from the copper wire and
7. Fixed the wires in the battery and the wires across the sticks.

(In the derocations of the magnetic swing)

8. Make the fences out of the popsicle sticks, por the sand onto the base, and put the human cut-out to the swing.

Documentations

 V. Concepts:

    Since physics in this activity are not just trivial, I want to add some information about it. You may see this as guidance to your presentation / lessen using the Electromagnetic Swing

 Lorentz Force:

    The Lorentz force is the combination of electric and magnetic force. It results from the interaction between the electromagnetic fields. According to Maxwells equations of classical electrodynamics a changing electrical field leads to a magnetic field. Therefore a moving charge q surrounded by a magnetic field will experience a force F, called the Lorentz force: F~L = q(~v × B~ )

 Since we know current I is equals the charge per time

I = q t

And the velocity is:

We get:

Three Finger Rule

     Sitting in physics class doing acrobatics with your fingers and trying to understand the meaning of the so called ”Three Finger Rule”.

    You also might call it “Right Hand Rule” or “Left Hand Rule” depending on your convention. But now let’s see how students can learn about it by interacting with the “Electromagnetic Swing –Lorentz Force Experiment”:

  Since coordinate systems are extremely common in mathematics, physics and engineering its fundamental to learn about in a hands-on experience. Because the Lorentz force is defined including the cross product it is necessary to have a closer look about this:

    “Given two linearly independent vectors a and b, the cross product, a × b, is a vector that is perpendicular to both a and b and therefore normal to the plane containing them.” (wikipedia) Therefore the resulting Lorentz force is perpendicular to the direction of the current AND the magnetic field lines. In order to find out about the direction of the Lorentz force we make use of the right-handed coordinates. Using thumb, index and middle finger will help us to figure out the direction of the Lorentz force.

    As you can see, the choice between whether Left- or Right-hand-rule depends on the direction of the current.

    If you are looking for the direction of the electrons flow, which is from minus to plus, you have to take the left hand. Therefore the left hand is used when talking about the technical current flow, which is from plus to minus.

   This is the only thing you should be very cautious about. Since the meaning of the index and middle finger is always the same. So let’s put this straight:

 F~L = q · (~v × B~ )

• thumb = points in the direction of the velocity vector v
• index finger = points in the direction of the magnetic field vector B (from North to South)
• middle finger = points in the direction of the cross product F

VI. Conclusion

   To conclude, this activity is based on attraction and repulsion of magnet in form of swing. To and from motion of swing causes makes and break contact of electromagnetic. Magnets have a north and a south pole. This means that one end of a magnet attracts and the other side repels if placed next to another magnet. This is a fun observation to make with magnets of any kind.  When a coil of wire moves near a magnet, the motion creates an electric current. The coil becomes a simple generator of electricity. When a current of electricity flows through a coil, the current causes the coil to move. The coil receiving the current becomes a basic motor. When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, it will experience the Lorentz Force.

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Documentations

Oersted and Faraday’s Discovery

  Electricity and magnetism both play big roles in our daily life they are essentially two aspects of the same thing. The Earth’s magnetic field is shaped like the magnetic field of a giant magnetic field of a gigantic bar magnet and it has two poles, the magnetic north pole and the magnetic south pole. When a magnet is suspended or hold in such a way that is free to move, it always align itself in the north-south direction.

  Magnetic field is a region in space where the magnet affects another magnet, such as the magnetic compass. Magnetic field occur whenever charge is in motion. As more charge is put in more motion, the strength of a magnetic field increases. At any point around the magnet, the field has a magnitude which depends on the magnetic flux per unit area. The direction is shown by the North pole of the compass needle. And the magnetic field is a vector quantity, and it is represented by B.

HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED

Han Christian Oersted

  In the year 1820 Oersted discovered that a magnetic needle aligns itself perpendicularly to a current-carrying wire, definite experimental evidence of the relationship between electricity and magnetism. While preparing for a lecture in his laboratory, Oersted unintentionally placed a magnetic compass under a current carrying wire. To his surprise, the magnetic needle deflected as if it were in the vicinity of a permanent magnet. This is the principle behind electromagnets.

  In our recent activity, we observed that the compass-needle has been deflected from its usual N-S position this is due to the current-carrying wire. When we are performing the activity, it was really hard for us to figure out what we’re going to do and we really don’t have an idea on what and how we are going to do it but Sir Lex provide us an Advanced Electromagnetism Kit for us to use, it consists of all necessary materials that are to be used in building the set-ups we’re making. We can also saw clearly that the lines of magnetic force circle around the wire is in counterclockwise direction. With the use of some materials that were also provided to us such as; the copper wire, the rectangular wooden block, a 9V battery and of course a magnetic compass, we’re able to make our set-up that is like the discovery of Oerstred.

Materials

Michael Faraday

Michael Faraday

  Michael Faraday contributed greatly to the understanding of electromagnetism. His discovery is the reverse of Oersted’s. He demonstrated that a changing current in a coil induces current in a nearby coil even if the coils are not physically connected. This is called the principle of electromagnetic induction.

  With this principle, Faraday built the world’s first electric generator. In  1831 people were producing dynamos or generators, but somebody had to show them how to use electricity in communicating.

  Michael Farday himself noticed that whenever a current-carrying conductor is in a magnetic field, it tended to move in a direction at right angles to both the direction of I and B.

  A coil of wire in a magnetic field rotates continuously as long as it carries current. It is also noticeable what Faraday has been pointing out on his experiment through the changing magnetic field, which induces current in the coil of copper wire. The set-up we did to understand further this concept was a success because there is a deflection of the needle of the voltmeter, which indicated that there was current in it.  Thus, a current-carrying coil shows magnetic properties. We refer to it as electromagnet which loses its magnetic property when there is no current in the wire. Unlike a permanent magnet, the strength of an electromagnet can easily be change by changing the amount of the electric current that flows through it. The materials used in this set-up are as follows: Voltmeter, Bar Magnet, Alligator clips and the coil of copper wire.

Materials

  In conclusion, Oersted and Faraday’s discovery gave us great help in understanding the relationship between electricity and magnet or we also called electromagnetism it also had a great impact on today’s daily life.

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“The Golden Spark”

“Christmas is the perfect time to celebrate the love of God and family and to create memories that will last forever.”

This lantern inspired with the great cultures and architectures of Ilocano. Moreover, it show different place that has a Golden value. Thus, our golden lantern symbolizes a victory which has simple color that has a wonderful light for Christmas.

So lets tackle down some important concepts that were used in making of our parol.

CAPACITOR

  Similarly to the resistor, Capacitor sometimes referred to as a Condenser, is a simple passive device that is used to “store electricity”. Moreover, the capacitor is a component which has the ability or “capacity” to store energy in the form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (Static Voltage) across its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery. There are many different kinds of capacitors available from very small capacitor beads used in resonance circuits to large power factor correction capacitors, but they all do the same thing, they store charge.

RESISTOR

  Resistor are made for the express purpose of creating a precise quantity of resistance for insertion into a circuit. They are typically constructed of metal wire or carbon, and engineered to maintain a stable resistance value over a wide range of environmental conditions. Unlike lamps, they do not produce light, but they do produce heat as electric power is dissipated by them in a working circuit. Typically, though, the purpose of a resistor is not to produce usable heat, but simply to provide a precise quantity of electrical resistance.

TRANSISTOR

  Transistor, semiconductor device for amplifying, controlling, and generating electrical signals. Transistors are the active components of integrated circuits, or “microchips,” which often contain billions of these minuscule devices etched into their shiny surfaces. Deeply embedded in almost everything electronic, transistors have become the nerve cells of the Information Age.

SWITCHES

  In electrical engineering, the term switch is an electrical component that can “make” or “break” an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The mechanism of a switch removes or restores the conducting path in a circuit when it is operated. It may be operated manually, for example, a light switch or a keyboard button, may be operated by a moving object such as a door, or may be operated by some sensing element for pressure, temperature or flow. A switch will have one or more sets of contacts, which may operate simultaneously, sequentially, or alternately. Switches in high-powered circuits must operate rapidly to prevent destructive arcing, and may include special features to assist in rapidly interrupting a heavy current.

LED

  A semiconductor diode that emits light when a voltage is applied to it and that is used especially in electronic devices (as for an indicator light).

TRANSFORMER

  A transformer is a static machine used for transforming power from one circuit to another without changing frequency. Since, there is no rotating or moving part, so a transformer is a static device. Transformer operates on a supply. A transformer works on the principle of mutual induction.

VOLTAGE

  Voltage is electric potential energy per unit charge, measured in joules per coulomb ( = volts). It is often referred to as “electric potential”, which then must be distinguished from electric potential energy by noting that the “potential” is a “per-unit-charge” quantity. Like mechanical potential energy, the zero potential can be chosen at any point, so the difference in voltage is the quantity which is physically meaningful. The difference in voltage measured when moving from point A to point B is equal to the work which would have to be done, per unit charge, against the electric field to move the charge from A to B. When a voltage is generated, it is sometimes called an “electromotive force” or emf.

PARALLEL CIRCUIT

  Two or more electrical devices in a circuit can be connected by series connections or by parallel connections. When all the devices are connected using parallel connections, the circuit is referred to as a parallel circuit. In a parallel circuit, each device is placed in its own separate branch. The presence of branch lines means that there are multiple pathways by which charge can traverse the external circuit. Each charge passing through the loop of the external circuit will pass through a single resistor present in a single branch. When arriving at the branching location or node, a charge makes a choice as to which branch to travel through on its journey back to the low potential terminal.

SERIES

  Two or more electrical devices in a circuit can be connected by series connections or by parallel connections. In a series circuit, each device is connected in a manner such that there is only one pathway by which charge can traverse the external circuit. Each charge passing through the loop of the external circuit will pass through each resistor in consecutive fashion. In that section, it was emphasized that the act of adding more resistors to a series circuit results in the rather expected result of having more overall resistance. Since there is only one pathway through the circuit, every charge encounters the resistance of every device; so adding more devices results in more overall resistance. This increased resistance serves to reduce the rate at which charge flows (also known as the current).

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

  A circuit diagram (electrical diagram, elementary diagram, electronic schematic) is a graphical representation of an electrical circuit. A pictorial circuit diagram uses simple images of components, while a schematic diagram shows the components and interconnections of the circuit using standardized symbolic representations. The presentation of the interconnections between circuit components in the schematic diagram does not necessarily correspond to the physical arrangements in the finished device.

ELECTRIC CONSUMPTION

  In electrical engineering, power consumption refers to the electrical energy per unit time, supplied to operate something, such as a home appliance. Power consumption is usually measured in units of watts (W) or kilowatts (kW).
The energy used by equipment is always more than the energy really needed. This is because no equipment is 100% efficient. Power is wasted as heat, vibrations and/or electromagnetic radiation. For example, a light bulb does not only convert electric power into light; it also makes some heat.

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“This was made to be displayed to show the happy spirit of the Christmas season.”

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COULOMB’S LAW

    After a breathe taking thermodynamics, here we go again another nerve racking topic; Coulomb’s Law.

   This week’s lesson is all about the Coulomb’s Law, so if there’s two of the same charges when combined together, they will likely to repel from each other like for example both are positive (+) charges and when there are two different charges, they will attract to each other like positive (+) and negative (–) charge.

   It can be expressed by the formula F=kq1q2/r2. Where F is the electric force, k is what is called the Coulomb’s constant (9×109Nm2/C2), q1 is the charge on the first object, q2 is the charge on the second object and r is the distance between the two charges.

   Furthermore, so it can be said that Coulomb’s Law calculates the electric force between two charges based on the formula. If q1, q2 and r is given, then you can compute for the F_net of the two charges.

   After we did some activities and after our discussions, we had observed that if it has a greater charge then it will have a greater force. So in the question,

Why the electron doesn’t fall into the nucleus?

   On 1902, it became clear that a tiny object such as the electron cannot be treated as a classical particle having a definite position and velocity based on what I’ve read and so, the best way we can do is to specify the probability of its manifesting itself at any point in space. In addition, according to Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle mentioned that you can never know the exact position and the exact speed of an object because everything in the universe behaves like both a particle and a wave at the same time. It only means that we cannot really say that an electron can be called as a particle that have an exact location and speed, it is because in quantum mechanics, the exact position and speed of an object have no meaning.

 

     Moreover, it is not proper to say that electrons fall into the nucleus because it is impossible to determine its speed and location. The best thing we can do is to specify the probability of its manifesting itself at any point in space. We could see something like this if only we had a super advance technologies that can capture the movement of electron on the 1s of hydrogen atom and it would give you a resulting image that have the combined dots. The closer we move toward the nucleus, more likely we found the electron. This is confirmed by this plot which shows the quantity of electron charge per unit volume of space at various distances from the nucleus. This is known as a probability density plot. The per unit volume of space part is very important here, as we consider radii closer to the nucleus, these volumes become very small, so the number of electrons per unit volume increases rapidly.

 

    Therefore, it appears as if the electron does fall into the nucleus. Its potential energy dives down toward minus-infinity, and its kinetic energy as the electron approaches the tiny volume of space occupied by the nucleus.

Second Law of Thermodynamics and Heat Engine

      After this ONE BIG EVENT which is our exam, we are able to finish one last topic, the Second Law of Thermodynamics and Heat Engine, considering the most factors affects in our class which we’re always encountering programs or announcement after flag raising ceremony that’s why most of our class interrupted and because of other activities in other subjects I failed to woke up early that’s why I missed some parts of our lessons but I’m able to caught up in order to prepare myself for these ONE BIG EVENT.

     For me, I felt that the most important lesson on the past semester was the LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, we were so pressured when we knew that were going to have exams worth 80 points, I’m really worried about it knowing that days pass by so quick, so basically I must listen attentively and try my best to understand our discussions in order for me to answer the items on the our exams. On the Second Law of thermodynamics, I got confused on some of the points there, specifically the sign conventions in finding the entropy of molecules, we knew that entropy is referred to disorder, so the sign to be used is from order to disorder. But as we got some problem-solving to do, I have overcame it and learned from it. But, when we first encountered the questions in our activity on the second law of thermodynamics, I found it quite hard but with the help of my other classmate I was able to understand it better.

In our life, we need to be spontaneous just like the direction of heat that lies on a heat engine that is from hot reservoir to cold reservoir while the refrigerator is in reverse that is from cold reservoir to a hot reservoir.

      Last week also we have tackled about the Heat Engines where heat engine converts heat energy to useful mechanical work and is a device used for converting heat energy constantly as we have defined. I’m grateful on this topic because I did not encounter any problem, I thought it would be as hard as those past lessons but it is a lot easier compared to those passed lessons. I got no problems on solving on the heat engine efficiency. But on the flickers, I got somewhat confused on some of the hard and tricky questions on finding the efficiency of a particular heat engine but fortunately I have already passed through it because I listened and tried my best to understand it very well and I also take down notes on some of the important points on it because I’ll be needing those information in order to solve properly in the exam. I am also amazed on how heat engine really works. I’m now wondering, what if one of us will invent an engine which is a 100% efficient? But I think it’s impossible unless someone really can make that happen. I also got interested in our discussion on the Carnot engine because of the simulation that was presented by our Sir Lex and through this, I was able to understand it very well and so it has a four process, the isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression and adiabatic compression then the Carnot cycle repeats again and again. The part in our activity where we computed for the efficiency of a Carnot engine, I did got any trouble in the problem about it because I can already compute for it by just using the formula given and mastering the concept of course.

     Our generation nowadays is really a lucky ones right? You just can imagine how scientists and inventors make our living lifestyle very very comfortable and easy with the help of their inventions. As I always said in my blog Physics will never be the easiest subject that you’ll encounter, but one thing is for sure, you will enjoy learning because of Physics, you can also discover things by your own. I think in the near future, those lessons we’ve tackled will be needing and applying to our daily life.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Physics is something to do with analyzing problems and discovering answers with the given concepts, last week we’ve given an activity entitled “Unlocking Mysteries and pV Diagram” in which how superman cooled down the overheating truck so that he will be able to defeat the evil General Zod who attempt to explode the fuel tank of the truck.

Let’s Try to find out how superman save the day!

        Moving on, when we’ve discussed the zeroth law of thermodynamics which states that if two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system then those two are in thermal equilibrium with each other. We then move on to the first law of thermodynamics. The first law can just show another way of the laws of conservation of energy. As heat and work are another form of energy, if they go outside of the system, it will affect the internal energy of the system.

First we should know how energy can be transferred from the surroundings into the system and back again?

Note: The energy is not gonna lost but the energy will be conserved.

A good way to measure this is by using a piston

            According to what our adviser discussed, the first law of thermodynamics makes us use of these key concepts of internal energy (ΔU), heat (Q), and system work (W). It is used extensively in the discussion of heat engines. The standard unit for all these quantities would be the Joule (J), although they are sometimes expressed in calories (cal).         

       

In order for us to understand its concept well, a table below shows the conventions:

                                                  ΔU = Q + W

Positive (+) Q	system absorbs heat from the environment
Negative (-) Q	system releases heat to the environment
Positive (+) W	work done on the system by the environment
Negative (-) W	work done by the system on the environment

       

       Moreover, W is defined as the work done on the system instead of work done by the system. In the context of physics, the common scenario is one of adding heat to a volume of gas and using the expansion of that gas to do work, as in the pushing down of a piston in an internal combustion engine. On the other hand, Q is defined as heat absorb or release to or from the system, and finally ΔU is the change in internal energy of a system.

       In addition, the internal energy U might be thought of as the energy required to create a system in the absence of changes in temperature or volume. But if the process changes the volume, as in a chemical reaction which produces a gaseous product, then work must be done to produce the change in volume. For a constant pressure process the work you must do to produce a volume change ΔV is PΔV. Then the term PV can be interpreted as the work you must do to “create room” for the system if you presume it started at zero volume.

           When work is done by a thermodynamic system, it is usually a gas that is doing the work. The work done by a gas at constant pressure is:

      Systems refer to any parts of the universe being studied. It is covered by the boundary and the area beyond the boundary is called as universe or Surroundings.

      The Boundary of the system can be fixed or it can be movable. Between the system and surrounding the exchange of mass or energy or both can occur.

    The system is subject to surrounding factors such as air temperature and pressure.

     

     Additionally, thermodynamics involve the study of heat energy exchange between a system and its surroundings. There are three types of thermodynamics systems. Based on the possible heat and matter transfer, they are classified as open, closed or isolated systems.

• OPEN SYSTEMwhere both matter and energy can move through the boundary into and out of the system. For example boiling water without a lid. Heat escape into the air. At the same time steam (which is matter) also escapes into the air.

• CLOSED SYSTEM where only energy (Heat) can move through the boundary into and out of the system. It allows heat to be transferred from the stove to the water. Heat is also transferred to the surroundings. Steam is not allowed to escape. A good example of this is a pressure cooker.

• ISOLATED SYSTEM neither matter nor heat can’t move through the boundary into and out of the system. Heat cannot transfer to the surroundings. In addition, this is a closed system where no heat or work (energy) may cross the system boundary. One example of this would be a thermos flask.

Although, I learned these concepts and be able to take note all the important points to remember. Also, with the help of the simulations that were presented, I was able to understood the lesson very well.

Furthermore, in terms of the different pV Diagrams, I learned about these four main processes that may occur on or by a system, namely: ISOTHERMAL, ISOBARIC, ISOCHORIC & ADIABATIC. It is further illustrated below in order for us to understand it well.

 Isothermal, where temperature is constant and one example of this would be breathing out through a wide open mouth.

Isobaric, where pressure is constant and examples of this would be the weighted piston, hot air balloon.

Isochoric, where volume is constant and the examples for this would be closed rigid container and constant volume thermometer.

Adiabatic, where no heat exchange with the environment and the examples for this would be “fast” processes, forcing air out through pursed lips.

            In addition, I really enjoyed the part where we discussed about the processes that we’ve watched on a certain videos that explains everything about the first law of thermodynamics which takes place on or by the system and the pV diagram of each process. I find it satisfying because I was able to determine them correctly on our activities. We’ve given a lot of time to work on it.. However, difficulties are expected. In this lesson, I am struggling on the computation part because of all the formulas that were presented; I got confused for quite a minute. Just like in our activity on “UNLOCKING MYSTERIES WITH THERMODYNAMICS SYSTEMS and pV DIAGRAMS,” now that we’ve all now the concept, we were able to find out how superman save the day in this activity has something to do with the thermodynamic process which is the Adiabatic Cooling Process which heat reduces through a change in air pressure caused by volume expansion. If the temperature increases, the volume expands which makes cooling of the overheating truck possible. And so, Superman saved the day!

            Therefore, the only thing I have to do is to comprehend what the formula entails because that what really matters; it is not enough to just know or memorize the formula itself without even knowing its concept. Also, it gives me discomfort feeling when the activity was just given and will be passed the next day. However, I know all of these will prepare us to college life where we may encounter such experiences, be it in an easy or difficult way.

           In the near future, this will allow me to determine what thermodynamic system and the undergoing process a certain body possesses. In addition, due to the absence of internet connection sometimes, this hinders us to have an access on the activities where internet would be used. I like the way our teacher arranged the problems on our activities, it is from easy to difficult and I think this will allow us to think outside the box and be able to understand the concepts very well in such a way that, even when our eyes are closed or with just a look we can already answer the problem. I’m always hoping even if it is hurts to be hopeless, I will because I think someday those lesson will be appeared on the future.